Section 1

Overview of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease

An Overview of the Dementias

What is Dementia?
Dementia is the loss of intellectual functions (such as thinking, remembering and reasoning) of sufficient severity to interfere with a person's daily functioning. It is not a disease in itself, but rather a group of symptoms which may accompany certain diseases or physical conditions. The cause and rate of progression of dementias vary. Some of the better known diseases that produce dementia include Alzheimer's Disease, multi-infarct dementia, Huntington's Disease, Pick's Disease, Cruetzfeldt-Jakob Disease, and Parkinson's Disease. Other conditions which may cause or mimic dementia include depression, brain tumors, nutritional deficiencies, head injuries, hydrocephalus, infections (AIDS, meningitis, syphilis), drug reactions and thyroid problems. It is imperative that all persons experiencing memory deficits or confusion undergo a thorough diagnostic workup. This requires examination by a physician experienced in the diagnosis of dementing disorders and detailed laboratory testing. The examination should include a reevaluation of all medications. This process will help the patient obtain treatment for reversible conditions, aid the patient and family in planning future care, and provide important medical information for future generations.

Alzheimer's Disease
 Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the most common of the dementing disorders, affecting as many as four million Americans. Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive, degenerative disease that attacks the brain and results in impaired memory, thinking and behavior. Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease include a gradual memory loss, decline in ability to perform routine tasks, disorientation in time and space, impairment of judgment, personality change, difficulty in learning, and loss of language and communication skills. As with all dementias, the rate of progression in Alzheimer's patients varies from case to case. From the onset of symptoms, the life span of an individual with AD can range anywhere from three to twenty or more years. The disease eventually leaves its victims unable to care for themselves. While a definitive diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease is possible only through the examination of brain tissue, which is usually done at autopsy, it is important for a person suffering from any symptoms of dementia to undergo a thorough clinical examination. In fact, after such an evaluation, approximately twenty percent of suspected Alzheimer's cases prove to be a medical condition other than Alzheimer's, sometimes treatable.
picture of doctor talking to male adult
Multi-infarct Dementia
Multi-infarct dementia (MID), or vascular dementia, is a deterioration of mental capabilities caused by multiple strokes (infarcts) in the brain. The onset of MID may be relatively sudden as many strokes can occur before symptoms appear. These strokes may damage areas of the brain responsible for a specific function as well as produce generalized symptoms of dementia. As a result, MID may appear similar to Alzheimer's Disease. Multi-infarct dementia is not reversible or curable, but recognition of an underlying condition (high blood pressure) often leads to a specific treatment that may modify the progression.

Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a progressive disorder of the central nervous system which affects more than one million Americans. Individuals with PD lack the substance dopamine, which is important for the central nervous system's control of muscle activity. Parkinson's Disease is often characterized by tremors, stiffness in limbs and joints, speech impediments and difficulty in initiating physical movement. Late in the course of the disease, some patients develop dementia and eventually Alzheimer's Disease. Conversely, some Alzheimer patients develop symptoms of Parkinson's Disease. Medications such as levodopa, which converts itself into dopamine once inside the brain and depreynl, which prevents degeneration of dopamine-containing neurons, are used to improve diminished or reduced motor symptoms in PD patients, but do not correct the mental changes that occur.

Huntington's Disease
 Huntington's Disease is an inherited, degenerative brain disease which affects the mind and body. The disease usually begins during mid-life, and is characterized by intellectual decline, and irregular and involuntary movements of the limbs or facial muscles. Other symptoms of Huntington's Disease include personality change, memory disturbance, slurred speech, impaired judgment and psychiatric problems. Huntington's Disease currently affects more than 25,000 Americans. The diagnostic process for Huntington's Disease includes an evaluation of family medical history, recognition of typical movement disorders and CAT brain scanning. A genetic marker linked to Huntington's Disease has been identified on chromosome 4 and researchers are working on locating the gene itself. Although there is no treatment available to stop the progression of the disease, the movement disorders and psychiatric symptoms can be controlled by drugs.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob
 Disease Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) is a rare, fatal brain disorder caused by a transmissible infectious organism, probably a virus. Early symptoms of CJD include failing memory, changes in behavior, and a lack of coordination. As the disease progresses, usually very rapidly, mental deterioration becomes pronounced, involuntary movements (especially muscle jerks) appear, and the patient may become blind, develop weakness in the arms or legs, and ultimately lapse into a coma. The death of CJD patients is usually caused by infections in the bedridden, unconscious patient. Like Alzheimer's Disease, a definitive diagnosis of CJD can be obtained only through an examination of brain tissue, usually at autopsy.

Pick's Disease
 Pick's Disease is also a rare brain disorder which, like Alzheimer's Disease, is usually difficult to diagnose. Disturbances in personality, behavior and orientation may precede and initially be more severe than memory defects. Like Alzheimer's Disease, a definitive diagnosis is usually obtained at autopsy.

Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
 Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus is an uncommon disorder which involves an obstruction in the normal flow of cerebrospinal fluid. This blockage causes a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid on the brain. Symptoms of Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus include dementia, urinary incontinence and difficulty in walking. Presently, the most useful diagnostic tools are the neuroimaging techniques (such as, MRI - magnetic resonance imaging). Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus may be caused by any several factors including meningitis, encephalitis and head injuries. In addition to treatment of the underlying cause, the condition may be corrected by a neurosurgical procedure (insertion of a shunt) to divert the fluid away from the brain.

Depression
 Depression is a psychiatric disorder marked by sadness, inactivity, difficulty in thinking and concentration, feelings of hopelessness, and sometimes suicidal tendencies. Many severely depressed patients will have some mental deficits including poor concentration and attention. When dementia and depression are present together, intellectual deterioration may be exaggerated. Depression, whether present alone or in combination with dementia, can be reversed with proper treatment.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

New layer...

Alzheimer's Disease Statistics

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive, degenerative disease of the brain, and the most common form of dementia. Here are some things you should know about Alzheimer's Disease:
  • Approximately four million Americans have AD (Alzheimer's Disease). In a 1993 national survey, 19 million Americans said they had a family member with AD, and 37 million said they know someone with AD.

  • 14 million Americans will have AD by the middle of the next century unless a cure or prevention is found.

  • One in ten persons over 65 and nearly half of those over 85 have AD. A small percentage of people as young as their 30s and 40s get the disease.

  • A person with AD will live an average of eight years and as many as 20 years or more from the onset of symptoms.
  • U.S. society spends at least $100 billion a year on AD. Neither Medicare nor most private health insurance covers the long term care most patients need.
  • More than seven of ten people with Alzheimer's Disease live at home. Family and friends provide almost 75 percent of the home care. The remainder is "paid" care, costing an average of $12,500 per year. Families pay almost all of that out-of-pocket.

  • Half of all nursing home residents suffer from AD or a related disorder. The average cost for nursing home care is $42,000 per year, but can exceed $70,000 per year in some areas of the country.

  • The average lifetime cost per patient is $174,000.

  • Alzheimer's Disease is the third most expensive disease in the United States, after heart disease and cancer.

  • The federal government estimates spending approximately $349.2 million for Alzheimer's Disease research in 1998. This represents $1 for every $287 the disease now costs society. The federal investment in heart disease, cancer and AIDS is four to seven times higher.

The Alzheimer's Association is the only national voluntary health organization dedicated to researching the causes, treatments, cures and preventions of Alzheimer's Disease and to providing education and support services to people with AD, their families and caregivers.

For further information on statistics, you may contact the Benjamin B. Green-Field Library of the Alzheimer's Association at (312) 335-9602.

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Dementia: Reversible and Irreversible

There are more than 60 medical, psychiatric and neurologic conditions associated with dementia. Not long ago, it was believed that 20-40 percent of dementias were potentially reversible. Now recent studies suggest that most dementias, while manageable, remain irreversible, while less than 5 percent are reversible.

The following summary should help to differentiate between these two groups.

Reversible Dementias

Characteristics of reversible dementias:
  • Can be reversed or cured
  • Temporary condition
  • Brain regains lost functions when treated
Common causes of reversible dementias:
  • Brain disease
    • Tumors
    • Subdural hematoma
    • Hydrocephalus

  • Depression
    • Response to life's stresses
    • Chemical imbalances in the brain

  • Medication
    • Negative drug interactions
    • Drug overdose
    • Alcohol abuse

  • Malnutrition
    • Vitamin (A, C, B-12 and folate) deficiencies
    • Mineral (iron) deficiencies

  • Heart disease -- Lack of oxygen to the brain causes confusion
    • Arrhythmias
    • Congestive heart failure
    • Myocardial infarction

  • Traumas
    • Usually due to falls
    • Concussions (skull fractures) or contusions (bruises) to the head

  • Metabolic or endocrine disorders
    • Thyroid disease
    • Hypo/hyperglycemia and other electrolyte imbalances
    • Dehydration
    • Accidental hypothermia
    • Renal failure
    • COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
  • Infection
    • Produces fever, affecting brain's cognitive abilities

  • Environmental changes
    • Visual and hearing loss
    • Loss of daylight and decrease in activities can result in "sundowning"
    • Heavy metal poisoning from gas leaks, exhaust fumes or other toxins


Irreversible Dementias

Characteristics of irreversible dementias:
  • Result in permanent brain damage
  • Cannot be reversed or cured
Common causes of irreversible dementias:
  • Alzheimer's disease or Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer's type (SDAT)
    • Progressive mental deterioration spanning a long period of time (3-20 years)
    • Affects 60 percent of those diagnosed with irreversible dementia
    • Fourth leading cause of death in the United States
  • Vascular dementia or Multi-infarct Dementia
    • Series of pockets of deteriorated tissue in the brain that cause a very erratic or unpredictable pattern.
    • Caused by multiple, small "mini-strokes" in the brain brought on by bleeding or lack of blood flow to the brain's blood vessels.
      • Hypertension (high blood pressure) and arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) are precursors to these mini-strokes
    • Has an abrupt onset with a step-wise deterioration in function
  • Other neurological diseases causing irreversible dementia
    • Parkinson's disease
    • Huntington's Chorea
    • Pick's disease
    • Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
    • Down's Syndrome
    • AIDS
Source: "Understanding the Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias: Lesson 1 - Overview of Dementia." (no longer available on web)

Mace, N., MA and P. Rabins, MD, MPH. (1991) The 36-Hour Day, revised edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Facts about Alzheimer's Disease

FACT: Alzheimer's Disease is the fourth leading cause of death affecting more than four million Americans.

FACT: Unless a cure or means of prevention is found, more than 14 million Americans will be afflicted by the middle of the next century.

FACT: Currently more than 40,000 Nebraskans have been diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease.
* By the year 2000, the number of those diagnosed will rise to 77,000 - enough to fill Memorial Stadium in Lincoln, Nebraska.

FACT: An estimated 50 percent of the population over age 85 are affected by Alzheimer's Disease, and 10 percent of the population over age 65 are affected.

FACT: More than 50 percent of nursing home residents have Alzheimer's Disease or a related disorder. Annual cost of care ranges from $25,000 to $35,000 annually.*

FACT: There are currently 12,463 Nebraskans with Alzheimer's Disease in nursing facilities.* A person with Alzheimer's Disease can live from three to 20 years or more from the onset of symptoms.

FACT: Over $373 million is spent in Nebraska on the care of individuals with Alzheimer's Disease in nursing facilities annually.*

FACT: An average of $18,000 is spent annually to care for an individual with Alzheimer's Disease in the home. Total amount spent in Nebraska: $596 million per year.*

FACT: One third of the caregivers of individuals with dementia are employed either full-time or part-time outside of the home.

*Based on 1990 census figures.

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Original Clinical Description of Alzheimer's Disease "Perplexed Woman"

An excerpt taken from a medical book by Dr. Alois Alzheimer describing a patient in 1907 who had the disease.

A woman, 51-years-old, showed jealously toward her husband as the first notable sign of the disease. Soon, a rapidly increasing loss of memory could be noticed. She could not find her way around in her own apartment. She carried objects back and forth and hid them. At times, she would think that someone wanted to kill her, and would begin shrieking loudly.

In the institution, her entire behavior bore the stamp of utter perplexity. She was totally disoriented to time and place. Occasionally, she stated that she could not understand and did not know her way around. At times she greeted the doctor like a visitor, and excused herself for not having finished her work; at times, she shrieked loudly that he wanted to cut her, or she repulsed him with indignation, saying that she feared from him something against her chastity. Periodically, she was totally delirious, dragged her bedding around, called her husband and her daughter, and seemed to have auditory hallucinations. Frequently, she shrieked with a dreadful voice for many hours.

Because of her inability to comprehend the situation, she always cried out loudly as soon as someone tried to examine her. Only through repeated attempts was it possible finally to ascertain anything. Her ability to remember was severely disturbed. If one pointed to objects, she named most of them correctly, but immediately afterwards, she would forget everything again. When reading, she went from one line into another, reading the letters or reading with senseless emphases. When writing, she repeated individual syllables several times, left out others, and quickly became stranded. When talking, she frequently used perplexing phrases and some periphrastic expressions (milk-pourer instead of cup). Sometimes one noticed her getting stuck. Some questions she obviously did not comprehend. She seemed no longer to understand the use of some objects. Her gait was not impaired. She could use both hands equally well. Her patellar reflexes were present. Her pupils reacted. Somewhat rigid radial arteries; no enlargement of cardiac dullness; no albumin. During her subsequent course, the phenomena that were interpreted as focal symptoms were at times more noticeable and at times less noticeable, but always they were only slight. At the end, the patient was completely stuporous; she lay in her bed with her legs drawn up under her body; and in spite of all precautions, she acquired decubitus ulcers.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

The Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ)

Question
Response
Incorrect Responses
1. What are the date, month, and year?    
2. What is the day of the week?    
3. What is the name of this place?    
4. What is your phone number?    
5. How old are you?    
6. When were you born?    
7. Who is the current president?    
8. Who was the president before him?    
9. What was your mother's maiden name?    
10. Can you count backward from 20 by 3's?    

 

SCORING:*

0-2 errors: normal mental functioning

3-4 errors: mild cognitive impairment

5-7 errors: moderate cognitive impairment

8 or more errors: severe cognitive impairment

*One more error is allowed in the scoring if a patient has had a grade school education or less.
*One less error is allowed if the patient has had education beyond the high school level.

Source: Pfeiffer, E. (1975). A short portable mental status questionnaire for the assessment of organic brain deficit in elderly patients. Journal of American Geriatrics Society. 23, 433-41.

Compiled by the Great Plains Area Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Stages of Alzheimers's Disease

  • There are roughly three different stages with characteristic signs, symptoms and behaviors.
  • Not all individuals will progress through the disease at the same rate, and not all will display all of the characteristics that will be mentioned.
  • Each case is individualized.
  • We do know that the younger a person is when diagnosed with Alzheimer's, the faster the disease progresses.
  • Divide the three stages into three categories. (Remember, there are no clear-cut divisions.)
    1. Cognitive changes - changes in perception and awareness.
    2. Affective changes - changes in emotions and feelings.
    3. Physical changes - observable changes that we can see in one's physical condition.
  1. FIRST STAGE (EARLY STAGE) -- 2-4 YEARS
    • Diagnosis is usually not made at this point - could be one of the 50 to 150 other disorders causing the same signs and symptoms in this first stage.
    • Changes are subtle, gradual, and insidious occurring over a period of months or years.
    1. Cognitive Changes (perception and awareness)
      1. Memory loss -- especially of recent events and new information.
      2. Uncertainty and hesitancy in initiating behaviors and actions.
      3. Unable to perform simple tasks -- loss of reason, logic, and judgment.
      4. Difficulty focusing attention - decreased attention span.
      5. Motor aphasia (loss for words).

      The changes are very subtle in this first stage of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). The family usually does not recognize anything is wrong, or attributes it to stress, lack of sleep, job, getting older, etc. Patients are very good at compensating for their deficiencies in this first stage. They may do very well in social situations and in a normal nonspecific conversation. It only becomes evident something may not be right when you ask very specific questions such as: "How old are you?" "What year is it?" "What date is it?" "What did you have for dinner?" Persons are very aware in the first stage of AD that they cannot remember. They may display symptoms of depression over their memory loss in this first stage.

    2. Affective Changes (changes in emotions and feelings)
      1. Decreased interest in environment and present affairs - social withdrawal.
      2. Indifferent to the normal courtesies of social life.
      3. Loss of initiative and sense of humor, may have a personality change.
      4. Lack of spontaneity (absent-minded, decreased concentration, decreased initiative and decreased drive, dull affect).
      5. Carelessness in appearance and actions.
      6. Emotional instability. The two most common emotions are:
        • Depression, because the person is aware they are forgetful, and
        • Anger/frustration, because they cannot remember or do things the way they used to.
      7. Personality changes / marital problems.
    3. Physical Changes (very few) Example - The AD person may look physically fine and may be in perfect cardiovascular health. They will go out, run a mile, come home, and forget where they put their tennis shoes.
      1. May have a slight weakness or slower movements.
      2. May have a small amount of muscular twitching.

    By the end of the first stage, people with AD are beginning to perform poorly at work. They might forget to perform tasks that were routine in their daily lives. They may be unable to add and subtract figures correctly, have difficulty organizing times and dates, and may be fired from their job with no explanation and often no retirement or insurance benefits.

  2. SECOND STAGE (2-12 YEARS -- LONGEST OF ALL STAGES)
    • Diagnosis is usually made here.
    • Families may be relieved to know that the relative has a "disease" and is not mentally ill. Signs and symptoms including behaviors are magnified many times over in the second stage, and the person is usually taken to a doctor, because the family is aware that their memory loss and decreased intellectual function is not a normal process of aging.
    1. Cognitive Changes
      1. Obvious defects in memory, retention, and recall. Their recent memory (short-term memory) is the first to go.
      2. Unable to concentrate - loses their train of thought, hesitation in verbal response.
      3. Forgets appointments and socially significant events.
      4. Forgets to initiate or complete normal routines including health and hygiene measures.
      5. Aimless wandering / restlessness (especially at night).
      6. Disorientation to time - confuses day and night.
      7. Misplaces items and then claims they were stolen.
      8. Hallucinations.
      9. Inappropriate social behavior.
      10. Increased dependence on significant others - role reversal, social isolation.
      11. Mirror sign - unable to recognize themselves in a mirror.
        • Example: The Alzheimer's individual may stand in front of a mirror and carry on a conversation with themselves, not realizing it is themselves they are seeing. If they do not recognize themselves, you can see why they would not recognize family, neighbors and friends.
      12. Unable to understand or express language.
      13. Unable to attach meaning to sensory impressions.
      14. Unable to do math calculations.
      15. Unable to carry out purposeful movements.
      16. Unable to read or write.
  3. THIRD STAGE - TERMINAL (1-3 YEARS)
  4. Families usually face the task of making major decisions during this stage regarding nursing home placement since the individual with Alzheimer's requires total physical care.
    1. Cognitive Changes
      1. Little or no response to stimuli.
      2. Unable to perform purposeful movements.
      3. Does not recognize others, including family.
    2. Affective Changes
      1. Lethargic - no energy.
      2. Expresses little or no emotion.
    3. Physical Changes
      1. Mute and unresponsive.
      2. Emaciation - marked weight loss with decreased appetite; choking is common due to the muscles that control swallowing being affected.
      3. Incontinence.
      4. Totally incapable of caring for self.
      5. Seizures - grand mall, approximately 50 percent of the time.
      6. Bedridden.
      7. Extreme psychomotor retardation.
      8. Susceptible to injuries and infections. The most frequent cause of death is pneumonia. Alzheimer's Disease debilitates the body to the point where a secondary infection takes over. Other contributing factors include malnutrition, dehydration, and immobilization.

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999. For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Is it Normal or is it Alzheimer's?The 10 Warning Signs

Normal
Possible Alzheimer's
1. Temporarily forgetting a colleague's name Not being able to remember the name later
2. Forgetting the carrots on the stove until the meal is over Forgetting that the meal was ever prepared
3. Unable to find the right word, but using a fit substitute Uttering incomprehensible sentences
4. Forgetting for a moment where you are going Getting lost on own street
5. Talking on the phone, and temporarily forgetting to a watch child Forgetting there is a child
6. Having trouble balancing a checkbook Not knowing what the numbers mean
7. Misplacing a wristwatch until the steps are retraced Putting a wristwatch in sugar bowl
8. Having bad day Having rapid mood swings
9. Gradual changes in personality Drastic personality changes
10. Tiring of housework, but getting back to it Not knowing or caring about housework that needs doing

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at:

Frequently Used Terms of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's is a complicated disease. Unless you are a health care professional or an experienced caregiver, you're probably not familiar with much of the terminology used to describe behaviors, conditions and care options associated with Alzheimer's Disease (AD). To help you better understand some of the jargon you might encounter, the Alzheimer's Association has developed this glossary.


A| B| C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M| N| O| P| Q| R| S| T| U| V| W| X| Y| Z|

A [return to top]
abilities Level at which certain actions and activities can be carried out.
Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter that appears to be involved in learning and memory. Acetylcholine is severely diminished in the brains of persons with Alzheimer's disease.
activities of daily living (ADL's) Personal care activities necessary for everyday living, such as eating, bathing, grooming, dressing and toileting. People with dementia may not be able to perform necessary functions without assistance. Professionals often assess a person's ADL's to determine what type of care is needed.
ADL's Activities of daily living. See previous definition.
adverse reaction An unexpected effect of drug treatment that may be serious or life-threatening, such as an allergic reaction.
adult day services Program providing participants with opportunities to interact with others, usually in a community center or facility. Staff lead various activities such as music programs and support groups. Transportation is often provided.
advance directives Written documents, completed and signed when a person is legally competent, that explain a person's medical wishes in advance, allowing someone else to make treatment decisions on his or her behalf.
aggression Aggressive behavior is hitting, pushing, or threatening that commonly occurs when a caregiver attempts to help a patient with daily activities, such as dressing. Keeping this type of behavior under control is important, because aggressive persons can cause injury to themselves or another person.
agitation Vocal or motor behavior (screaming, shouting, complaining, moaning, cursing, pacing, fidgeting, wandering, etc.) that is either disruptive, unsafe, or interferes with the delivery of care in a particular environment. Not all abnormal behaviors can be considered agitation unless they pose risk or discomfort. Agitation is a nonspecific symptom of one or more physical, or psychological processes.
Alzheimer's Disease A progressive, neurodegenerative disease characterized by loss of function and death of nerve cells in several areas of the brain, leading to loss of mental functions such as learning and memory. Alzheimer's Disease is the most common cause of dementia.
ambulation The ability to walk and move about freely.
amyloid A protein deposit associated with tissue degeneration; amyloid is found in numerous conditions.
amyloid plaque See "neuritic plaque"
amyloid precursor protein A protein found in the brain, heart, kidney, lung, spleen, and intestine. The normal function of APP (amyloid precursor protein) in the body is unknown. In Alzheimer's Disease, APP is abnormally processed and converted to beta-amyloid protein. Beta-amyloid is the protein deposited in amyloid plaques.
APP Amyloid precursor protein. See the previous definition.
animal models Animals which have been altered to develop Alzheimer's Disease. With models, researchers can study the mechanisms of a disease and test therapies.
anti-inflammatory drugs Drugs which reduce inflammation by modifying the body's immune system.
anxiety A feeling of apprehension, fear, nervousness, or dread, accompanied by restlessness or tension.
apathy Lack of interest, concern or emotion.
aphasia Difficulty understanding others and/or expressing oneself verbally.
apolipoprotein E (apoE) A protein whose main function is to transport cholesterol. The gene for apoE is on chromosome 19. There are three forms of apoE: E2, E3, E4. E4 is associated with about 60 percent of late-onset Alzheimer Disease and is considered a risk factor for Alzheimer's Disease.
art therapy Activities that allow people with dementia opportunities to express their feelings creatively through art.
assessment An evaluation, usually performed by a physician, of a person's mental, emotional and social capabilities.
assisted living A residential care setting that combines housing, support service and health care for people typically in the early or middle stages of Alzheimer's Disease.
atrophy Shrinking of size; often used to describe loss of brain mass seen in cases of Alzheimer's Disease during autopsy.
autonomy A person's ability to make independent choices.
autopsy Examination of a body organ and tissue after death. Autopsy is often performed (upon request) in order to confirm diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease.

B [return to top]

behavioral symptoms In Alzheimer's Disease, these are the symptoms that relate to action or emotion, such as wandering, depression, anxiety, hostility, and sleep disturbances.
beta-amyloid Beta-amyloid protein is a specific type of amyloid normally found in humans and animals. In Alzheimer's Disease, beta-amyloid is abnormally processed by nerve cells and becomes deposited in senile plaques in the brains of persons with the disease.
Binswanger's disease A type of dementia associated with stroke-related changes in the brain.
brain One of the two components of the central nervous system, the brain is the center of thought and emotion. It is responsible for the coordination and control of bodily activities, and the interpretation of information from the senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.).

C [return to top]
calcium channel blocker A drug that blocks the entry of calcium into cells, thereby reducing activities that require calcium, such as neurotransmission. Calcium channel blockers are used primarily in the treatment of certain heart conditions, but are being studied as potential treatments for Alzheimer's disease.
calcium An element taken in through the diet that is essential for a variety of bodily functions, such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and proper heart function. Imbalances of calcium can lead to many health problems, and can cause nerve cell death.
caregiver The primary person in charge of care of an Alzheimer patient, usually a family member or a designated health care professional.
care planning A written action plan containing strategies for delivering care that address an individuals specific needs or problems.
case management A term used to describe formal services planned by care professionals.
cell The fundamental unit of all organisms; the smallest structural unit capable of independent functioning.
Cell body In nerve cells, this is the central portion from which axons and dendrites sprout. The cell body primarily controls life-sustaining functions of a nerve cell.
Cell membrane The outer boundary of the cell; the cell membrane helps control what substances enter or exit the cell.
central nervous system (CNS) One of the two major divisions of the nervous system. Composed of the brain and spinal cord, the CNS is the control network for the entire body.
CNS Central nervous system. See previous definition.
cerebral cortex The outer portion of the brain, consisting of layers of nerve cells and the pathways that connect them. The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain in which thought processes take place. In Alzheimer's Disease, nerve cells in the cerebral cortex die.
choline A natural substance required by the body that is obtained from various foods, such as eggs; one essential component of acetylcholine.
choline acetyltransferase An enzyme that controls the production of acetylcholine; appears to be depleted in the brains of Alzheimer patients.
CAT Choline acetyltransferase. See the previous definition.
cholinergic system The system of nerve cells that uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter and is damaged in the brains of Alzheimer patients.
cholinesterase

An enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, so that its parts can be recycled.
chromosome An H-shaped structure inside the cell nucleus made up of tightly coiled strands of genes. Each chromosome is numbered (in humans, 1-46). Genes on chromosome 1, 14, 19, and 21 are associated with Alzheimer's Disease.
clinical trial Organized studies that test the value of various treatments, such as drugs or surgery, in human beings.
coexisting illness A medical condition that exists simultaneously with another, such as arthritis and dementia.
cognitive abilities Abilities such as judgment, memory, learning, comprehension, and reasoning.
Cognitive symptoms In Alzheimer's Disease, these are the symptoms that relate to loss of thought processes, such as learning, comprehension, memory, reasoning, and judging.
combativeness Incidents of aggression.
competence A person's ability to make informed choices.
computed tomography A type of imaging scan which shows the internal structure of a person's brain. In the differential diagnosis of dementia, CT scans can reveal brain tumors and small strokes in the brain.
CT scan Computed tomography. See the previous definition.
continuum of care Care services available to assist individuals throughout the course of decline.
controls A group of people or animals that does not receive a treatment or other intervention, or that is not affected with the disease being studied. This group is used as a standard to compare any changes in a group that receives treatment, or that has the disease. In Alzheimer's Disease research, patients are often compared with controls of the same age (age-matched) to rule out the effects of age.
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease A rare disorder that has infectious and genetic causes, which typically causes memory failure and behavioral difficulties.
cueing The process of providing cues, prompts, hints and other meaningful information, direction or instruction to aid a person who is experiencing memory difficulties.

D [return to top]
dementia The loss of intellectual functions (such as thinking, remembering, and reasoning) of sufficient severity to interfere with a person's daily functioning. Dementia is not a disease itself, but rather a group of symptoms which may accompany certain diseases or conditions. Symptoms may also include changes in personality, mood, and behavior. Dementia is irreversible when caused by disease or injury, but may be reversible when caused by drugs, alcohol, hormone or vitamin imbalances, or depression.
deficits Physical and/or cognitive skills or abilities that a person has lost, has difficulty with, or can no longer perform due to his or her dementia.
delusion A false idea, typically originating from a misinterpretation, but firmly believed and strongly maintained in spite of contradictory proof or evidence.
dendrites Branched extensions of the nerve cell body that receive signals from another nerve cell(s). Each nerve cell usually has many dendrites.
diagnosis The process by which a physician determines what disease a patient has by studying the patient's symptoms and medical history and analyzing any tests performed ( i.e., blood, urine, brain scans, etc.).
disorientation A cognitive disability in which the senses of time, direction and recognition become difficult to distinguish
deoxyribonucleic acid The basis of all genetic material. Chromosomes are composed of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and each gene carries a specific sequence. Patterns of nucleotides represent particular genes. For example, ATTGCCA is gene 1; GGTACCATA is gene 2.
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid. See the previous definition.
double-blind, placebo-controlled study A research procedure in which neither researchers nor patients know who is receiving the experimental substance or treatment and who is receiving a placebo.
Down's Syndrome A syndrome which causes slowed growth, abnormal facial features, and mental retardation in newborns. An extra copy of all or part of chromosome 21 causes Down's Syndrome. Some individuals with Down's Syndrome develop Alzheimer's Disease.

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early-onset A type of Alzheimer's disease in which individuals are diagnosed with AD (Alzheimer's Disease) before the age of 65. Approximately 1 to 10 percent of AD patients have early-onset. Early-onset AD is associated with mutations in genes located on chromosomes 1, 14 and 21.
early stage Period in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) when individual experiences very mild to mild cognitive impairments.
environment Physical and interpersonal surroundings that can affect mood and behaviors in people with dementia.
electron microscope A powerful microscope that employs a stream of electrons to magnify an image to a much greater degree.
enzyme Protein produced by living organisms that promotes or otherwise influences chemical reactions.
estrogen A hormone produced by the ovaries and testes. It stimulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics and induces menstruation in women. Estrogen is important for the maintenance of normal brain function and development of nerve cells. Estrogen is used therapeutically to treat breast and prostate cancer, osteoporosis, and to relieve the discomforts of menopause. Recent research suggests that estrogen may be beneficial in treating Alzheimer's Disease.

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familial Alzheimer's Categorization of persons with Alzheimer's who have had other members Disease of their immediate family diagnosed with the disease.
free radicals Highly toxic molecules capable of causing damage in brain and other tissue. Free radicals are common byproducts of normal chemical reactions occurring in cells. The body has several mechanisms to deactivate free-radicals.

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gait Refers to a person's manner of walking. People in the later stages of Alzheimer's often have "reduced gait," meaning they may lose the ability to lift their feet as they walk.
gene The basic unit of heredity; a section of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) coding for a particular trait.
Gene linkage A group of genes located closely together on a chromosome.
Gene regulation The control of the rate or manner in which a gene is expressed as a protein.
genetic susceptibility The state of being more likely than the average person to develop a disease as a result of genetics.
genome All the genes of an organism.
glutamate A neurotransmitter that normally is involved in learning and memory. Under certain circumstances, it appears to cause the death of nerve cells in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders.

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hippocampus A part of the brain that is important for learning and memory.
hoarding Collecting and putting things away in a guarded manner.
hospice Philosophy and approach to providing comfort and care rather than heroic lifesaving measures.
Huntington's Disease Inherited, degenerative brain disease that affects the mind and body, characterized by intellectual decline and involuntary movement of limbs.

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immune system A system of cells that protect a person from bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other foreign substances that gain access into the body
inflammatory response The immune system's normal response to tissue injury or abnormal stimulation caused by a physical, chemical, or biological substance. Immune system cells, if abnormally stimulated, can often cause further tissue damage while responding to the injured site.
instrumental activities Secondary level of activities (different from ADL's such as eating, dressing, of daily living (IADL's) bathing) important to daily living, such as cooking, writing and driving.

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late stage Designation given when dementia symptoms have progressed to the extent that a person has little capacity for self care.
layering Behavior that involves inappropriately changing or layering clothing on top of one another.
Lewy body dementia A dementing illness associated with protein deposits called Lewy bodies, found in the cortex region of the brain.

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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A brain scanning technique that generates cross sectional images of a human brain by detecting small molecular changes. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans reveal a contrast between normal and abnormal tissues. The image produced is similar to those generated by CT (Computed Axial Tomography) scans. There are no side-effects or risks associated with MRI scans (although MRI can affect electrical devices like pacemakers and hearing aids).
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging. See the previous definition.
Medicaid Program sponsored by the federal government administered by states, intended to provide health care and health-related services to low-income individuals.
Medicare

A federal health insurance program for people 65 and older, and individuals with other disabilities.
memory The ability to process information that requires attention, encoding, storage and retrieval.
metabolism The complex chemical and physical processes of living organisms that promote growth, sustain life, and enable all other bodily functions to take place.
microglia A type of immune cell found in the brain. Microglia cells are scavengers, engulfing dead cells and other debris. In Alzheimer's Disease, microglia cells are found associated with dying nerve cells and amyloid plaques.
Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) A standard mental status exam routinely used to measure a person's basic cognitive skills, such as short-term memory, long-term memory, orientation, writing and language.
MMSE Mini-Mental State Exam. See the previous definition.
model system A system used to study processes that take place in humans or other living organisms.
monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) A drug that interferes with the action of monoamine oxidase, slowing the breakdown of certain neurotransmitters. Used in the treatment of depression.
MAOI Monoamine oxidase inhibitor. See the previous definition.
Multi-infarct dementia Also known as vascular dementia, this form of dementia is caused by a number of strokes in the brain. These strokes can affect some intellectual abilities, impair motor and walking skills, and can cause the individual to experience hallucinations, delusions, or depression. The onset of MID is usually abrupt and often progresses in a stepwise fashion. Individuals with MID are likely to have risk factors for strokes, such as high blood pressure, heart disease or diabetes. MID cannot be treated; once the nerve cells die, they cannot be replaced. However, risk factors can be treated, which may help prevent further damage.
MID Multi-infarct dementia. See previous definition.
music therapy Use of music to affect physical, psychological, cognitive and/or social functioning.

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nerve cell (neuron) The basic working unit of the nervous system. The nerve cell is typically composed of a cell body containing the nucleus, several short branches (dendrites), and one long arm (the axon) with short branches along its length and at its end. Nerve cells send signals that control the actions of other cells in the body, such as other nerve cells and muscle cells.
nerve cell line A group of nerve cells derived from a cell culture that can be used for experimental purposes.
Nerve growth factor A protein that promotes nerve cell growth and may protect some types of nerve cells from damage, including nerve cells in the cholinergic system.
Nerve cell transplantation An experimental procedure in which normal brain cells are implanted into diseased areas of the brain to replace dying or damaged cells.
neurodegenerative disease A type of neurological disorder marked by the loss of nerve cells. See Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease.
neuritic plaque Also called amyloid or senile plaques. Abnormal cluster of dead and dying nerve cells, other brain cells, and protein. Neuritic plaques are one of the characteristic structural abnormalities found in the brains of Alzheimer patients. Upon autopsy, the presence of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles is used to positively diagnose AD (Alzheimer's Disease).
neurofibrillary tangle Accumulation of twisted protein fragments inside nerve cells. Neurofibrillary tangles are one of the characteristic structural abnormalities found in the brains of Alzheimer patients. Upon autopsy, the presence of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles is used to positively diagnose AD.
neurological disorder Disturbance in structure or function of the nervous system resulting from developmental abnormality, disease, injury, or toxin.
neurologist A physician who diagnoses and treats disorders of the nervous system.
neuropathology Changes in the brain produced by a disease.
neurotransmission Passage of signals from one nerve cell to another via chemical substances or electrical signals.
neurotransmitter Specialized chemical messenger (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin) that sends a message from one nerve cell to another. Most neurotransmitters play different roles throughout the body, many of which are not yet known.
neurotrophic factor A protein, such as nerve growth factor, that promotes nerve cell growth and survival.
nucleus The central component of a cell; contains all genetic material.

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onset Defines time of life when Alzheimer's disease begins (e.g., Early-onset, late-onset).

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pacing Aimless wandering, often triggered by an internal stimuli (e.g., pain, hunger or boredom) or some distraction in the environment (e.g., noise, smell, temperature).
paranoia Suspicion of others that is not based on fact.
perseveration Persistent repetition of an activity, a word, phrase or movement, such a tapping, wiping or picking.
Pick's Disease Type of dementia in which degeneration of nerve cells causes dramatic alterations in personality and social behavior, but typically not memory (until later in the disease).
pillaging Taking things that belong to someone else. A person with dementia may think something belongs to her, even when it clearly does not.
Parkinson's Disease A progressive, neurodegenerative disease characterized by the death of nerve cells in a specific area of the brain; the cause of nerve cell death is unknown. Parkinson patients lack the neurotransmitter dopamine, and have such symptoms as tremors, speech impediments, movement difficulties, and often dementia.
peripheral nervous system (PNS) One of the two major divisions of the nervous system. Nerves in the PNS connect the central nervous system with sensory organs, other organs, muscles, blood vessels, and glands.
PNS Peripheral nervous system. See the previous definition.
pharmacology

The study of drugs, including their composition, production, uses, and effects in the body.
placebo A "sugar pill." See double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
plaques and tangles See " neuritic plaque" and "neurofibrillary tangle."
positron emission tomography (PET) scan An imaging scan that measures the activity or functional level of the brain by measuring its usage of glucose.
PET scan Positron emission tomography scan. See previous definition.
protein metabolism The breakdown of proteins into amino acids, a process essential to human growth and metabolism.
psychosis A general term for a state of mind in which thinking becomes irrational and/or disturbed. It refers primarily to delusions, hallucinations, and other severe thought disturbances.

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quality care Term used to describe care and services that allow recipients to attain and maintain their highest level of mental, physical and psychological function, in a dignified and caring way.

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reassurance Encouragement intended to relieve tension, fear and confusion that result from dementing illnesses.
receptor In the nervous system, a site on a nerve cell that receives a specific neurotransmitter; the "message receiver."
reinforcement Employment of praise, repetition and stimulation of the senses to preserve a person's memory, capabilities and level of self-assurance.
reminiscence Life review activity aimed at surfacing and reviewing positive memories and experiences.
repetitive behaviors Repeated questions, stories, outbursts or specific activities done over and over again, common in people with dementia.
respite A short break or time away.
Respite care Services that provide people with temporary relief from tasks associated with caregiving (such as, in-home assistance, short nursing home stays, adult day care).
restraints Used to ensure safety, physical restraints are attached to a person to restrict and control movement. Many facilities are "restraint free" or use alternative methods to help modify behavior.
risk factors Factors that have been shown to increase one's odds of developing a disease. In Alzheimer's Disease, the only established risk factors are age, family history and genetics.

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senility Term meaning "old," once used to describe elderly diagnosed with dementia. Today, we know dementia is caused by various diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's) and is not a normal part of aging.
sequencing Doing things in a logical, predictable order.
shadowing Following, mimicking, interrupting behaviors that people with dementia may experience.
side effect An undesired effect of drug treatment that may range in severity from barely noticeable, to uncomfortable, to dangerous. Side effects are usually predictable.
sheltered care Term used in some states to describe a type of residential setting.
skilled nursing care Level of care that includes ongoing medical or nursing services.
spinal cord One of the two components of the central nervous system. The spinal cord is the main relay for signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
stages Course of disease progression defined by levels or periods of severity.
sundowning Unsettled behavior often evident in the late afternoon or early evening.
support group Facilitated gathering of caregivers, family, friends or others affected by dementia for the purpose of discussing issues related to the disease.
suspiciousness/paranoia Common in Alzheimer patients as their memory becomes progressively worse. It is often seen, for example, when patients believe their glasses or other belongings have been stolen because they forgot where they left them.
synapse The junction where a signal is transmitted from one nerve cell to another, usually by a neurotransmitter.
synaptic vesicles Small sacs located in the ends of nerve cell axons that contain neurotransmitters. During activity the vesicles release their contents at the synapse, and the neurotransmitter stimulates receptors on other cells.

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tangles See "neurofibrillary tangles."
tau protein The major protein that makes up neurofibrillary tangles found in degenerating nerve cells. Tau is normally involved in maintaining the internal structure of the nerve cell. In Alzheimer's Disease, the tau protein is abnormally processed.
tissue

A group of similar cells that act together in the performance of a particular function, such as muscle or liver tissue.
toxin A substance that can cause illness, injury, or death. Toxins are produced by living organisms.

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vesicle A small pouch or pouch-like structure (sac); vesicles in nerve cell axons contain neurotransmitters.
vitamins Various substances found in plants and animals that are required for life sustaining processes.

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wandering Common behavior that causes people with dementia to become lost.

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zinc A metal that is essential for proper nutrition. When zinc is mixed with beta-amyloid proteins in a test tube, clumps occur that resemble amyloid plaques. It is unknown if this laboratory finding resembles actual events occurring in brain cells and if zinc plays a role in the development of Alzheimer's Disease.

Compiled by the Lincoln/Greater Nebraska Chapter of the Alzheimer's Association, 1999.

For further information about Alzheimer's Disease or related disorders, contact the Alzheimer's Association at: